Ⅰ Japanese Art as Seen by the World

After Japan emerged on the international stage during the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Western art market was flooded with Japanese objects that shaped global perceptions of Japanese art. These included Imari porcelains and export lacquers, which had been traded overseas since before the Edo period (1615–1868), as well as sword fittings, which were rendered obsolete by the Sword Abolition Edict of 1876. Other popular genres included small inrō cases and carved netsuke toggles, as well as ukiyo-e woodblock prints. In Paris, considered the artistic capital of Europe at the time, a surge of interest in Japanese art captivated collectors and art critics alike. Artists such as Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) and Ogata Kōrin (1658–1716) drew particular attention.
At the World Expositions held across Europe and America during this period, exhibits were generally divided into two categories: pavilions showcasing decorative arts and industrial products, and art galleries displaying paintings and sculptures, in accordance with Western aesthetic principles. The Meiji government, though navigating unfamiliar territory, sought to identify products marketable overseas in order to promote industrial development, while also encouraging the creation of art that conformed to Western ideals—— all in an effort to enhance national prestige.

“Fine Wind, Clear Weather,” also known as “Red Fuji,” from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji
By Katsushika Hokusai
Hagi Uragami Museum, Yamaguchi
[on view: April 19–May 18, 2025]

Ⅱ Japanese Art for a Global Audience

When participating in World Expositions, Japan’s Meiji government aimed not only to cater to Western tastes for the exotic but also to assert Japan’s status as a “civilized nation” with its own “art” and “history.” At the Exposition Universelle in Paris (1900), Japan displayed its first-ever comprehensive history of Japanese art. Lavishly bound and written in French, the text was compiled according to Western scholarly methods.
The history of art introduced in this volume begins with what we now call the Yayoi period (circa fifth century BCE to circa third century CE) and incorporates findings from art inventories conducted at ancient temples and shrines, led by such figures as Okakura Tenshin (also known as Kakuzō, 1863–1913). The book features masterworks that have since been designated National Treasures or Important Cultural Properties. A Japanese version of the volume was published the following year; it became the government-endorsed art history of the nation and established the framework for how Japanese art history is understood today.
Meanwhile, the popularity in Europe and America of works inspired by Ogata Kōrin (1658–1716) contributed to Japan’s conceptualization of the aesthetic style of Rinpa, which was retrospectively linked to the painter Tawaraya Sōtatsu (active early 1600s). The term “Rinpa” became a defining narrative within Japanese art history.
Thus, the history of Japanese art as we recognize it today is, at least in part, a self-portrait shaped through the lens of modern Western perspectives.

Histoire de l’Art du Japon
Published by the Commission impériale du Japon à l’Exposition universelle de Paris
Kyoto National Museum

Ⅰ Techniques and Aesthetics Introduced Through Foreign Exchange

While the Meiji government sought to highlight Japan’s uniqueness to the outside world, many of the artifacts preserved in Japan today embody a wealth of intercultural influences, revealing a vibrant history of exchanges with other countries.
During the Yayoi period (circa fifth century BCE to circa third century CE), frequent interactions with the Asian continent integrated Japan into a broader cultural sphere. Along with imports such as bronze and iron tools, silk textiles, and glass, Japan also received new technologies from abroad, which were soon adapted for local production. During the Kofun period (circa mid-third century to circa sixth century), Japan continued to absorb knowledge and cultural elements from overseas, leading up to the introduction of Buddhism from the Korean Peninsula in the mid-500s.
During the seventh and eighth centuries (Asuka and Nara periods), official missions to Sui and Tang China brought cutting-edge Chinese goods, technologies, and political systems to Japan. Additionally, cultural elements introduced through exchanges with Tang, such as influences from Central Asian performing arts, became firmly rooted in the Japanese archipelago. These rich vestiges of international exchange underscore Japan’s reputation as the terminus of the Silk Road.

Tomb Figures
Reportedly excavated from Beimangshan, Luoyang
Kyoto National Museum

Ⅱ In Search of Teachings

During the eighth and ninth centuries (late Nara period through early Heian period), diplomatic missions traveling between the continent and the Japanese archipelago included not only envoys but also scholars, artisans, and monks. In addition to engaging in political and economic negotiations, these delegations also brought art, advanced technologies, and the latest philosophical ideas to Japan.
Buddhism, in particular, was highly sought after for its perceived powers to heal sickness, ensure peace in the afterlife, protect the nation, and influence the weather. Clerics such as the eminent Tang monk Jianzhen (J: Ganjin, 688–763) braved perilous sea journeys to bring Buddhist precepts to Japan. Similarly, Japanese monks such as Saichō (766/767–822), Kūkai (774–835), Ennin (794–864), and Enchin (814–891) traveled to Tang China to acquire sutras, Buddhist images, and ritual manuals (J: giki) for their home country.
The introduction of Buddhism brought a wealth of religious art from India, China, the Korean Peninsula, and Southeast Asia into Japan. Buddhist artworks would go on to be used as sacred adornments for Japanese court rituals and temple interiors during the Heian period (794–1185).

National Treasure
Book Box with Buddhist Flowers and Kalavinka Birds
Ninna-ji Temple, Kyoto

Ⅲ Karamono: Japan’s Admiration for China

Japan’s military class rose to power in the late twelfth century, ushering in the Kamakura period (1185–1333). Commerce and industry flourished across Japan during this new medieval age, while fascination with Chinese culture continued to thrive. Both official and private voyages to China continued in pursuit of Buddhist sutras, exquisite ceramics, and silk textiles. These exchanges introduced new Buddhist traditions, such as Zen, bringing a fresh vitality to Japanese culture and the arts.
Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, during the Muromachi period (1392–1573), both samurai warriors and monks held Chinese culture in high regard. Karamono (“Chinese goods”) were prized as models to emulate. When rare and expensive genuine imports were unavailable, Japanese artisans created convincing substitutes. This practice of replication and adaptation not only fostered the development of distinctive Japanese products but also gave rise to new artistic schools. Imitation and reinvention, it seems, have long been specialties of the Japanese people.

National Treasure
“Biography of Uisang,” from Illustrated Biographies of the Kegon (Huayan) School Founders (Kegon shū soshi eden)
Kōsan-ji Temple, Kyoto

Japan-made imitations of coveted foreign goods usually contain small misunderstandings or modifications made to accommodate Japanese tastes. Artisans might depict a never-before-seen carriage as a living creature (as seen in a bronze mirror in this exhibition), confuse tigers and leopards—— known in Japan only through paintings and furs—— or painstakingly incorporate Japanese concepts into décor not found in the original designs.
During political transitions in Japan, the treasured artworks of overthrown regimes were rarely destroyed: imported items continued to be cherished for their rarity. If such precious treasures were damaged, they would be carefully repaired and passed down through generations.
This enduring care for objects reflects a distinctly Japanese ethos rooted in the spirit of mottainai—— a deep appreciation for the value of objects and a belief that nothing should be wasted.

Important Cultural Property
Mirror with Deities, Figures, Animals, Horses, and Carriage
Excavated from Samita Takarazuka Kofun, Kawai-cho, Kitakatsuragi-gun, Nara
Tokyo National Museum

Mirror with Atypical Deities, Figures, Animals, Horses, and Carriage
Excavation site unknown
Kyoto National Museum

Ⅰ Turbulent Waves on a Global Scale

During the Age of Exploration, from the fifteenth through early seventeenth century, Western powers came to dominate the trade networks crisscrossing the seas of Asia, aided by large ships, gunpowder, and a drive to spread Christianity. In Japan at this time, there was an insatiable demand for Asian goods such as silk, medicines, and incense. Traders from various countries fiercely competed for lucrative trade rights, while Japan’s rulers sought to profit from international commerce. At the same time, the Japanese remained wary of foreign invasions, tightening controls over trading ports in order to manage such exchanges.
Whatever the intentions of Japan’s leaders, the Asian seas were already a vibrant arena where people from diverse cultural backgrounds transcended modern notions of nation-states. Many of these individuals shared knowledge, technology, and culture across regions, sometimes voluntarily and sometimes forced by war or upheaval.
The goods brought through these exchanges enriched the lives of Japan’s elites. Appreciation for Chinese goods (karamono) persisted, but over time, the term karamono came to encompass all imported items. Products from the Ryukyu Kingdom, Southeast Asia, and even Venice were cherished under the broader designation of karamono, reflecting Japan’s enduring fascination with the outside world.

Important Cultural Property
Surcoat (Jinbaori) with Birds and Animals
Owned by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Kōdai-ji Temple, Kyoto
[on view: April 19–May 11, 2025]

Ⅱ Local Products in a Global Age

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the sites and methods of artistic production diversified with the global circulation of trade goods. Suddenly, similar objects were being made in different places using region-specific materials and techniques. For example, Indian ebony furniture was imitated by European woodcarvers; identical furniture might also be commissioned in Japan, employing the decorative lacquer technique of makie. Likewise, in Japan and China, porcelain and lacquer were used to make square wine flasks that imitated Western glassware. In turn, European porcelain workshops, inspired by Chinese and Japanese ceramics, produced porcelain dishes with designs mimicking Asian lacquerware.
In Edo-period Japan (1615–1868), foreign influences permeated everyday life in both creative and luxurious ways. Pipes (kiseru) and playing cards (karuta), both introduced from abroad, were adapted as motifs on lacquerware. Rare, imported textiles were reworked into kimono-style garments. Ingenuity, aesthetic flair, and wealth fostered an atmosphere of growing international sophistication.

Folding Chair with Floral Arabesques
Kyoto National Museum

Ⅲ Transferring Technology, Inspiring Curiosity

People with specialized skills have often been forced to migrate due to wars, religion, or colonialism, leading to the transfer of techniques across cultures. A well-known example is the influence of Korean ceramic techniques in western Japan after the Toyotomi administration’s invasions of the Korean Peninsula. During the succeeding Edo period (1615–1868), Korean diplomatic missions were dispatched twelve times to promote peace and friendship. The grand processions of hundreds of Korean envoys in Japan generated excitement about Korean culture in every region they passed. Intellectual exchanges from that period inspired creative works such as poems and paintings, many of which are still preserved across Japan today.
Similar kinds of exchanges took place in conjunction with the travels of the Dutch East India Company chiefs from Deshima (or Dejima), in Nagasaki, to Edo—— present-day Tokyo. Their entourages included experts in fields such as natural history, as well as personnel with artistic talents. Numerous vivid accounts survive of their interactions with curious Japanese counterparts who were interested in Western culture and knowledge.

Twenty-four Paragons of Filial Piety
By Tosa Mitsusuke and others

Ⅳ Japan’s New Admiration for China

While contemporary discussions of Japanese cultural exchange often focus on interactions with the West, admiration for China in Edo-period Japan remained strong up through the nineteenth century. The people of Kyoto, in particular, started experiencing a heightened fascination with China in the 1600s, when new aspects of Chinese culture began to flow into Japan.
In the seventeenth century, during the turbulent transition from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) to the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), large numbers of Chinese people emigrated to Japan. Perhaps the most significant among them was the Ōbaku Zen priest Yinyuan Longqi (J: Ingen Ryūki, 1592–1673), who founded the temple of Manpuku-ji in Uji, Kyoto. Yinyuan was known for introducing Minchō-style (serif) woodblock-printed characters, the green bean (ingen in Japanese), and grid-style writing paper. His influence extended to the promulgation of Chinese literati tastes in poetry, calligraphy, and painting, and even to the rise in popularity of sencha (steeped green tea) in Japan. With these also came Chinese-style Buddhist statues and musical instruments. This new influx of Chinese culture during the Edo period further fueled Japan’s appreciation for Chinese aesthetics—— an appreciation that remained widespread well into the prewar era of the early twentieth century.

Rāhula, from the Eighteen Arhats
By Fan Daosheng
Manpuku-ji Temple, Kyoto

Does art have the power to help us overcome cultural barriers? To explore this question, we turn to a Japanese handscroll entitled Minister Kibi’s Adventures in China.
The scroll (later remounted into four handscrolls, of which one is included in this exhibition) was acquired by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, in 1932 and exhibited the following year. Although, during that period, international political criticism of Japan was intensifying following its 1931 invasion of Manchuria, Boston’s citizens responded enthusiastically to the masterwork. The distinguished Japanese art historian Yashiro Yukio (1890–1975), who was lecturing in Boston at the time and witnessed this apparent incongruity, marveled at the universal appeal of art, while recognizing its vulnerability to political exploitation.
Art can indeed transcend cultural boundaries. It has the ability to touch people’s hearts, regardless of political circumstances, historical period, or language barriers. Yet, our capacity to connect with art perhaps does not depend solely on our openness to embracing the unfamiliar—— it may also stem from our willingness to engage with foreign cultures.